Unit 6

Memory
The persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information

Memory Process

1. Encoding: the processing of information into the memory 
2. Storage: the retention of encoded material over time
3. Retrieval: the process of getting the information of memory storage

Recall vs. Recognition

• With recall you must retrieve the information from your memory (fill-in-the blank test)
• With recognition you must identify the target from possible targets (multiple choice test)

Flashbulb Memory

• A clear moment of an emotionally significant moment or event

3 Types of Memory
Sensory Memory

• The immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system 
• Storea just for an instant, and most gets unprocessed

Short-term Memory

• Memory that holds a few items briefly
• Seven digits
• The information will be stored into long-term of forgotten

Working Memory (Modern Day STM)

• Another way of describing the use to short-term memory is called working memory
• Has three parts: 

1. Audio
2. Visual
3. Integration of audio and visual

Long-term Memory 

• The relatively permanent and limited storehouse of the memory system

Encoding
Automatic Processing

• Unconscious encoding of incidental information
• You encode space, time and word meaning without effect
• Things can become automatic with practice

Effortful Processing

• Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort
• Rehearsal is the most common effortful processing technique
• Through enough rehearsal, what was effortful becomes automatic

The Next-in-line Effect

• We seldom remember what the person has just said or done if we are next

Spacing Effect

• We encode better when we study or practice over time 

Serial Positioning Effect 

• Our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

Three Types of Encoding

1. Semantic: the encoding of meaning, like the meaning of words
2. Acoustic: the encoding of sound, especially the sounds of words
3. Visual: the encoding of picture images

Chuncking

• The organizing items into familiar, manageable units
• Often it will occur automatically

Token Economy

• Every time a desires behavior is performed a token is given
• They can trade tokens in for a variety of prizes 
• Used in homes, prisons, mental institutions, and schools

Fixed Interval

• Requires a set of amount of time to elapse before giving the reinforcement

Variable Interval

• Requires a random amount of time to elapse before giving the reinforcement

Observational Learning 

• Albert Bandura and Bobo Doll 
• We learn through modeling behavior from others 
• Observational learning plus operant conditioning equals social learning theory

Latent Learning 

• Sometimes learning is not immediately evident

Insight Learning 

• Some animals through the "ah ha" experience

Reinforcement 

• Reduce or decrease a desired behavior 

Punishment 

• Used to decrease an unwanted behavior

Types of Long Term Memory
Explicit (declarative) with conscious recall

• Facts, general knowledge (semantic memory)
• Personally experienced events (episodic memory)

Implicit (nondeclarative) with conscious recall

• Skills, motor and cognitive
• Classical and operate conditioning effect

Types of Retrieval Failure 

1. Proactive Interference: the disruptive effect f prior learning on the recall of new information
2. Retroactive Interference: the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

Misinformation Effect

• Incorporating misleading information into ones memory of an event

Learning 

Associative Learning

• Learning that certain events occur together

Classical Conditioning

• Ivan Pavlov, tested theory on dogs

Unconditional Stimulus (UCS)

• A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers response

Unconditioned Response (UCR) 

• The unleamed, naturally occurring response the UCS

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

• An originally irrelevant stimulus, that, after association with the UCS, comes to trigger response

Conditioned response (CR)

• The learned response to a previously neutral stimulus

Acquisition

• The phase where the neutral stimulus is associated with the UCS so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit the CR

Extinction

• The diminishing of a conditional response 
• Will eventually happen when the UCS does not follow the CS

Spontaneous Recovery 

• The reappearance, after a rest period of an extinguished conditioned response 

Generalization

• The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the CS to elicit similar response

Discrimination

• The ability to distinguish between a CS and other stimuli that does not signal UCS 

Operant Conditioning 

• The learner is not passive
• Learning based on consequences 
• A type of learning in which behavior sis strengthened if followed by reinforcement or diminished if followed by punishment 

Classical vs. Operant 

• They both use acquisition, discrimination, SR, generalization and extinction
• Classical conditioning is automatic
• Operant conditioning involves behavior where one can influence their environment with behaviors which have consequences 

Law of Efferent by Edward Thorndike

• rewarded behavior is likely to reoccur

B.F. Skinner

• Shaping: a procedure in operant conditioning in which reinforcers guide behavior closer and closer towards a foal

Reinforcers

• Any event that strengthens the behavior it follows
• Two types of reinforcement

1. Positive
2. Negative

Positive Reinforcement 

• Strengthens a response by presenting a stimulus after a response

Negative Reinforcement

• Strengthens a response by reducing or removing an aversive stimulus

Types of Reinforcers

Primary Reinforcers

• An innately reinforcing stimulus 

Conditioned (Secondary) Reinforcer

• A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association within its primary reinforcement

Punishment 

• An event that decreases the behavior that it follows

Reinforcement Schedules 

Continuous Reinforcement 

• Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

Partial Reinforcement 

• Reinforcing a response only part of the time 
• The acquisition process is slower
• Greater resistance to extinction 

Fixed Ratio Schedule

• A schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

Variable Ratio Schedule 

• A schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

Fixed Interval

• A schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response only after a specified time as elapsed

 Variable Interval Schedule 

• A schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response at unpredictable intervals

Sleep, Hypnosis, Drugs

Sleep

• State of unconscious 
• We are less aware of our surroundings 

Conscious, Subconscious, Unconscious

Daydream

• They can help us prepare for future events
• They can nourish our social development 
• Can substitute for impulsive behavior 

Fantasy Prone Personalities

• Someone who imagines and recalls experiences with life like vividness and who spends considerable time fantasizing 

Biological Rhythms 

• Annual cycle: seasonal variation (bear hibernation)
• 28 Day cycle: sleep cycle
• 24 Hour cycle: our circulation rhythm 
• 90 Minute cycle: sleep cycle

Circadian Rhythm 

• Biological clock
• Our body temperature and awareness changes throughout the day

Sleep Stage 

• There are 5 identified stages
• It takes about 90-100 minutes to pass through the five stages
• The brain's waves will change according to the sleep stage you are in
• The first four stages are known as NREM sleep
• The 5th stage is called REM sleep

First Stage

• Kind of awake and kind of asleep 
• Only last a few minutes, and you usually only experience it once a night
• Eyes begin produces theta waves

Second Stage

• This follows stage one of sleep and is the "baseline" of sleep
• This stage is part of the 90 minute cycle and occupies approximately 45-60 % of sleep
• More theta waves that progressively slower 

Stage Three and Four

• Slow wave sleep
• You produce delta waves
• If awoken you will be very groggy
• Vital for restoring body's growth hormones and overall health 
• May last 15-30
• It is called "slow wave" sleep because brain activity slows down dramatically from the "theta" rhythm of stage two to a much slower rhythm called "delta" and the height or amplitude of the waves increases dramatically 
• Contrary to popular belief, it is delta sleep that is the "deepest" stage of sleep and the most restorative
• It is delta sleep that asleep-deprives person's brain craves the first and foremost

REM Sleep

• Rapid eye movement
• Brain is very active 
• Dreams occur
• Body is essentially paralyzed
• 20-25 % of normal nights sleep
• Breathing, heart rate, and brain wave activity quickens
• Vivid dreams can occur
• From REM, you back to stage two

Insomnia 

• Persistent problems falling asleep
• Affects 10% of the population

Narcolepsy

• Suffer from sleeplessness and may fall asleep at unpredictable or inappropriate times
• Directly into REM sleep
• Less than .001% of population

Sleep Apnea

• Wake up momentarily, gasps for air, the  falls back asleep
• Very common, especially in heavy males
• Can be fatal

Night Terrors

• A sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified
• Occurs in stage four, not REM, are not often remembered

Sleep Walking

• Sleep disorder affecting an estimated 10 percent of all humans at least once in their lives
• Most often occurs during deep non-REM sleep (stage 3 or stage 4 sleep) early in the night

Dreams 

• A sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind
• Manifest Content: the remembered story line of a dream
• Latent Content: the underlying meaning of a dream 

Three Theories 
Freud's Wish-Fulfillment Theory

• Dreams are the key to understanding our inner conflict
• Ideas and thoughts that are hidden in our unconscious 
• Manifest and latent content

Information Processing Theory 

• Dreams act to sort out and understand the memories that you experience that day 
• REM sleep does increase after stressful events

Activation-Synthesis Theory

• During the night out brain stem releases random neural activity, dreams may be a way to make sense of that activity

Unit V

Sensation and Perception

• Sensation: your window to the world
• Perception: interpreting what comes in your window

Sensation

• The process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive stimulus from the environment

Bottom-Up vs. Top-Down Processing

• Bottom-Up: begins with recess receptors and works up to the brains integration of sensory information
• Top-Down: information processing guided by higher level mental proccesses

Absolute Threshold

• The minimum stimulation needed to detect a stimulus 50% of the time

Difference Threshold

• The minimum difference that a person can detect between two stimuli
• Also known as Just Noticeable Difference

Weber's Law

• The idea that, to perceive a difference between two stimuli, they must differ by a constant percentage; not a constant amount

Signal Detection Theory

• Predicts how we detect a stimulus amid other stimuli
• Assumes that we do not have an absolute threshold

Sensory Adaptation

• Decreases responsiveness to stimuli due to constant stimulation

Selective Attention

• The focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

Cocktail-Party Phenomenon

• The cocktail party effect describes the effect describes the ability to focuses one's listening attention on a single talker among a mixture of conversations and back ground noises, ignoring other conversations
• Form selective attention

Vision

• Our most domination sense
• Visual capture
• Short wavelength= high frequency (bluish colors, high-pitched sounds)
• Long wavelength= low frequency (reddish colors, low-pitched sounds)
• The height if a wave gives us its hue (color)
• The longer the wave the more red
• The shorter the wavelength

Transduction

• Transferring signals into neural impulses 
• Information goes from the senses to the thalamus, then to the various areas in the brain
• Transduction: conversion of one for, of energy to another
• Stimulus energies to neural impulses

Color Vision 

Young-Helmholtz Trichromatic (three color) Theory

• Red, blue, green
• Three types of cones can make millions of combinations of colors

Opponent-Process Theory

• The sensory receptors come in pairs
• Red/green
• Yellow/blue
• Black
• If one color is stimulated, the other is inhibited

Hearing

• We hear sound waves 
• The height of the wave gives is the  amplitude of the sound
• The frequency of the wave gives is the pitch of the sound

Transduction in the Ear

• Sound waves hit the eardrum the anvil then hammer then stirrup then oval window
• Everything is just vibrating
• Then the cochlea vibrates
• The cochlea is lines with mucus called basilar membrane
• In basilar membrane there are hair cells
• When hair cells vibrate they turn vibrations into neural impulses which are called organ of corti
• Sent then to thalamus up auditory nerve

Place Theory

• Different hairs vibrate in the cochlea when there are different pitches
• So some hair vibrate when they hear high pitches and others vibrate when they hear low pitches

Frequency Theory

• All the hairs vibrate but at different speeds

Deafness
Conduction Deafness

• Something goes wrong with the sound and the vibration on the way to the cochlea
• You can replace the bones or get a hearing aid to help

Nerve Deafness 

• The hair cells in the cochlea get damaged
• Loud noises can cause this type of deafness 
• No way to replace the hairs
• Cochlea implants is possible

Sensory Interaction 

• The principle that one sense may influence another

Taste 

• We have bumps on our tongue and papillae
• Taste buds are located on the papillae (all over mouth)
• Sweet, salty, sour, bitter, hot/spicy

Unami 

• Favorable meaty, savory taste 

Touch

• Receptors located in our skin
• Gate Control Theory of Pain: spinal cord contains the neurological gate that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass onto the brain

Vestibuler Sense

• Tells us where our body is oriented in space
• Our sense of balance

Kinesthetic Sense

• Tells us where our body parts are
• Receptors located in our muscles and joints chapter

Perception

• The process of organizing and interpreting information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events

Gestalt Philosophy

• The whole greater than the sum of its parts

Figure-Ground Relationships

• The organization of the visual field into objects (figures) that should stand our from their surroundings (ground)

Grouping

• The perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into groups that we understand 

Depth Perception

• The ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two dimensions
• Allows us to judge distance

Binocular Cues

• Retina Disparity: a binocular cue for seeing depth
• The closer an object comes to you the greater the disparity is between the two images

Monocular Cues 

• Interposition is when something is blocking our view of seeing something then we think it is actually closer to us
• Relative size when we think two objects are the same but the smaller one is farther away
• Blurry things seem father away, also known as relative clarity
• We refer to texture gradient when things are coarser and they seem closer to us
• We refer to relative height when things are higher up then we can see, and seem farther away
• We refer to relative motion when things that are closer move faster
• We refer to liner perspective when parallel lines seem to converge with distance
• When referring to light and shadow, objects that get less light and look dimmer seem far away

Motion Perception

• We determine by size of things

Phi Phenomenon

• When two or might lights blink in succession

Perceptual Consistency

• When we perceive objects as unchanging even though they have changed

Language and Thought
Language

• The way we speak or write words, and how we communicate with them
• Phenomenons are sound units
• Morphemes are small units that have meaning
• Grammar is used so hat we can communicate and understand each other
• Semantics derive meaning in language (ed)
• Syntax combine words in grammatical sentences
• We learn more through mental pictures and also in words

Language Development

• The babbling stage occurs when an infant is 3-4 months old and they make sounds
• The one-word stage is when a child is 1-2 years old and use single words to tell things or communicate
• The two-word stage is when the child is two and uses two words to communicate

Skinner 

• Believed that we could explain the development of language trough the social learning theory

Chomsky Inborn Universal Grammar

• We do not learn language, acquire it
• We are able to learn any human language with the "learning box"

Whorf's Linguistic Relatively

• Language determines how we think

Kohler's Chimpanzees

• Chimps solve problems
• Animals have signals and communicate

Intelligence 

• The ability to use knowledge, learn, and adapt
• The factor analysis is used by scientist to identify clusters on tests
• Spearman used the factor analysis for his intelligence
• Multiple intelligence was by Gardner by studying savants, including:

1. Visual/Spatial
2. Verbal/Linguistic
3. Logical/Mathematical
4. Bodily/Kinesthetic 
5. Musical/Rythmic
6. Interpersonal
7. Intrapersonal
8. Natural

• Sternberg's 3 Aspects of Intelligence

1. Analytical 
2. Creative
3. Practical

Emotional Intelligence

• Perceive , express, understand, and control emotions

Mental Age

• Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon made the concept, meaning the things someone should know by a particular age
• The IQ Test is also known as the Stanford-Binet Test

Mental Abilities

• Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale has 11 subtest using factor analysis

Aptitude v. Achievement Test

• Aptitude test is used to see the ability of a person to learn
• Achievement test is used to see what someone has learned

Intelligence Test 

1. Standarization

• For a sample of people
• Makes a bell curve
• The flynn effect is when the performance rises

2. Reliability

• Test yields consistent roles over time

3. Validity

• Test measures what it's suppose to
• Content validity occurs when the test samples behavior, while predictive validity samples future behavior

Intelligence

• Can change depending on type 
• Bell curve is different for whites and blacks
• Math scores different across gender
• Test are bias and need to be

Thinking

• Cognition is thinking, knowing, remembering
• Concepts are grouping of similar things like objects and ideas
• Prototypes is a mental image, category

Solving Problems

• Trial and error
• Algorithms guarantee solving a particular problem
• Heuristics allow is to make judgement and solve
• An insight is a realization about a problem

Obstacles to Solving Problems

• Conformation bias is referred to when someone looks for information that goes to their preconception

Match Problem

• When seeing a problem from a new perspective is called fixation

Mental Set

• Approach a problem the same way as done before

Functional Fixedness

• Thinking of things only by their usual function

Types of Heuristics

• When judging something by how well they match prototype is called representativeness heuristics
• Estimating things by memory is called availability heuristics

Overconfidence

• More confident than correct

Framing

• Has drastic effects because the way it is posed

Belief Bias

• Preexisting beliefs to distort reasoning

Belief Perseverance

• Clinging to initial conception

     

Unit IV

Biological School 
The Nervous System

• Starts with the neuron; a cell

Neuroanatomy 

• Neutransmitters: chemicals held in terminal buttons that travel through synaptic gap
• Cell Body: the cells life-support center
• Dendrites: receives messages from other cells
• Axon: passes messages away from the cell body to other neurons, muscles, or glands
• Neural Impulse: electrical signal traveling the axon
• Terminal Branches of Axon: form junctions with other cells
• Myelin Sheath: covers the axon of some neurons and helps speed neural impulses
• Synapse: structure that permits a neuron to pass a chemical or electrical signal to another cell

Neuron Fire

• Resting Potential: slightly negative charge
• Reach the threshold when enough neurotransmitters reach dendrites
• It is an electrochemical process

- It is an electrical inside the neuron
-Chemical outside the neuron (in the synapse in the form of a neurotransmitter)
-The firing is called action potential

The All or None Response

• The idea that either the neuron fires or it does not (partway firing)

1. Acetylcholine (ACH)

• Deals with motor movement and memory 
• Lack of ACH has been linked to Alzheimer's disease

2. Dopamine

• Deals with motor movement and alertness
• Lack of dopamine has been linked to Parkinson's disease
• Too much has been linked to schizophrenia

3. Serotonin

• Involved in mood control
• Lack of serotonin has been linked to clinical depression

4. Endorphins

• Involved in pain control 
• Many of our most addictive drugs deal with endorphins

Drugs Can Be 

• Agonist: make neuron fire
• Antagonists: stop neural firing

Neurons

1. Sensory Neurons (Afferent Neurons): tale information from the senses to the brain
2. Inter Neurons: take messages from sensory neurons to other parts of the brain or to motor neurons
3. Motor Neurons (Efferent Neurons): take information from the brain to the rest of the body 

Central Nervous System

• The brain and the spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous System

• All nerves that are not encased in bones
• Everything but the brain and spinal cord
• Is divided in two categories, somatic and autonomic

Somatic Nervous System

• Controls voluntary muscle movement
• Uses motor (efferent) neurons

Autonomic Nervous System

• Controls the automatic functions of the body
• Divided into two categories, the sympathetic and the parasympathetic 

Sympathetic Nervous System

• Fight or flight response
• Automatically accelerates heart rate, breathing, dilated pupils, slows down digestion

Parasympathetic Nervous System

• Automatically slows the body down after a stressful event
• Heart rate and breathing slows down, pupils constrict and digestion speeds up 

Reflexes

• Normally, sensory (afferent) neurons take into up through spine to the brain 
• Some reactions occur when sensory neurons reach just the spinal cord

Lesions

• Cutting into the brain and looking for changes
• Less invasive ways to study the brain

Brain Structures

• Some scientist divide the brain up into three parts
• Hindbrain, Forbrain, Midbrain

Hindbrain 
1. Medulla Oblangata

• Heart rate, breathing, blood pressure

2. Pons

• Connects kindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain together
• Involved in facial expressions

3. Cerebellum

• Located in the back of our head (little brain)
• Coordinates muscle movement 
• Like tracking a target 

Midbrain 

• Coordinates simple movements with sensory information
• Contains the reticular formation: arousal and ability to focus attention

Thalamus 

• In forebrain 
• Receives sensory information and sends them to appropriate areas of forebrain 
• Like a switchboard
• Everything but smell

Limbic System 

• Emotional control center of the brain 
• Made up of hypothalamus, amygdala and hippocampus 

Hypthalamus 

• Pea sized in brain, but plays a not so pea sized role
• Body temperature
• Hunger
• Thirst
• Sexual arousal

Hippocampus and Amygdala

• Hippocampus is involved in memory processing 
• Amygdala is vital for our basic emotion

Cerebal Cortex 

• Top layer of our brain 
• Control wrinkles called fissures
• The fissures increase surface area of our brain
• Laif out it would be about the size of a large pizza

Hemisphere

• Divided into a left and right hemisphere 
• Controalateral controlled: left controls right side of body and vice versa
• Brain lateralization 
• Lefties are better at spatial and creative tasks 
• Righties are better at logic

Split-Brain Patients 

• Corpus Collosum attaches the two hemispheres of cerebral cortex
• When removed you have a split-brain patient

Cerebal Cortex

• Made up of four lobes

1. Frontal Lobe

• Abstract and emotional control
• Contains motor cortex: sends signals to our body controlling muscle movements
• Contains Broca's Area: responsible for controlling muscles that produce speech
• Damage to Broca's Area is called Broca's Aphasia: unable to make movements to talk\

2. Parietal Lobe

• Contain sensory cortex: receives incoming touch sensations from rest of the body
• Most of the parietal lobes are made of association areas
• Association Areas: any area not associated with receiving sensory information or coordinating muscle movements

3. Occipital Lobes

• Deals with vision
• Contains visual cortex: interprets messages from out eyes into images we can understand

4. Temporal Lobes

• Process sound sensed by our ears
• Interpreted in auditory cortex
• Not lateralized
• Contains Wernicke's are: interprets written and spoken speech
• Wernicke's Aphasia: unable to understand language, the syntax grammar jumbled

The Endocrine System

• A system of glands that secrete hormones
• Similar to nervous system, except hormones work a lot slower than neurotransmitters 
• Thyroid gland: affects metabolism, among other things
• Pituitary gland: secretes many different hormones, some of which affect other glands 
• Parathyroid: helps regulate the level of calcium in the blood
• Adrenal glands: inner part called the medulla, helps trigger the "fight or flight" response
• Pancreas: regulates the level of sugar in the blood

Developmental Psychology

• The study of you from womb to the tomb 
• How we change physically, socially, cognitively and morally

Nature vs. Nurture

• Nurture: the way you were raised
• Nature: the way you were born

Prenatal Development

• Conception begins with the drop of an egg and the release of about 200 million sperm
• The sperm seeks out the egg and attempts to penetrate the eggs surface

Zygote

• The first stage of prenatal development, last about two weeks and consists of rapid cell division
• Sperm penetrates egg, it is now fertilized
• Less than half of all zygotes survive first two weeks
• About 10 days after conception, the zygote will attach itself to the uterine wall 
• The outer part of the zygote becomes the placenta (nutrients)

Embryo

• Two weeks later 
• Last about 6 weeks
• Heart begins to beat and the organs begin to develop

Fetus

• By nine weeks we have a fetus
• The fetus by about the 6th month, the stomach and other organs have formed enough to survive outside of mother
• At this time the baby can hear (and recognize) sounds and respond to light

Teratogens

• Chemical agents that can harm the prenatal environment
• Alcohol
• Other STD's can have the baby
• HIV
• Herpes

Healthy Newborns

• Turn head towards voices
• See 8 to 12 inches from their faces 
• Gaze longer at human like objects right from birth

Reflexes

• Inborn automatic responses
• Rooting reflexes: babies tendency when touched on the cheek to open mouth and search for nipple
• Sucking 
• Grasping 
• Moro
• Babinski

Maturation

• Physical growth, regardless of the environment
• Although the timing

Puberty

• The period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing

Primary Sexual Characteristics

• Body structures that make reproduction possible

Secondary Sexual Characteristics

• Non-reproductive sexual characteristics

Landmarks for Puberty

• Menarche for girls
• First ejaculation for boys (spermarche)

Physical Milestones

• Menopause: when a woman stops menstruation

Death

• Elizabeth Kubler-Ross
• Stages of Death/Grief

1. Denial
2. Anger 
3. Bargaining
4. Depression
5. Acceptance

Social Development 

• Stranger anxiety: when an infant encounters a stranger and exhibit anxiety
• Separation anxiety: when a child is separated from their parents

Attachment

• Harry Harlow and his monkeys
• Harry showed that monkeys needed touch to form attachment 
• Critical periods: the optimal period shortly after birth when organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produce proper development
• Those who are deprived of touch have trouble forming attachment when they are older

Mary Ainsworth's strange situation
Types of Attachment

1. Secure
2. Avoidant
3. Ancious/Ambivalent

Parenting Styles

1. Authoritarian (parent in control)
2. Permissive Parents (child in control)
3. Authoritative Parents (both child and parent)

Erik Erikson-Social Development

• A neon-Freudin
• Worked with Anna Freud
• Thought our personality was influenced by our experiences with others

Trust vs. Mistrust

• Can a baby trust you 
• The trust or mistrust they develop can carry on with the child

Autonomy vs. Shame&Doubt

• Babies control bodies (toilet)
• Control temper tantrums
• Big word is "No"

Initiative vs. Guilt 

• Word "No" turns to "Why?"
• Are they good or bad
• Ages 3-6
• Want to understand the world and ask questions

Industry vs. Inferiority

• Ages 6-12
• School begins
• Can lead  to us feeling bad about ourselves for the rest of our lives (Inferiority Complex)
• Feel good or bad about accomplishments

Identity vs. Role Confusion

• Ages 13-15
• Who am I
• Try different things

Intimacy vs. Isolation

• Have to balance work and relationships
• Prioritize

Generality vs. Stagnation

• Middle adult 
• Will I succeed in life 
• Mid-life crisis

Integrity vs. Despair 

• Look back on life 
• Senior
• Was my life meaningful or do I regret it?

Jean Piaget

Cognitive Development

• It was thought that kids were just stupid versions of adults
• Kids learn differently from adults 

Schema

• Children view the world through schemes (as do adults for the most part)
• Schemes are ways we interpret the world around us
• It is basically what you picture in your head when you think of anything

Assimilation 

• Incorporating new experiences into existing schemas

Accommodation

• Changing an existing schema to adopt to new information

Stages of Cognitive Development

1. Sensorimotor Stage

• Experience the world through our senses
• Do not have object permanence
• Ages 0-2

2. Preoperational Stage

• Ages 2-7
• Have object permanence
• Begin to use language to represent objects and ideas
• Egocentric: cannot look at the world through anyone's eyes but their own 
• Conservation: refers to the idea that a quantity remains the same despite changes in appearance and is part of logical thinking

3. Concrete Operational Stage

• Can demonstrate concept of conservation 
• Learn to think logically 

4. Formal Operational Stage

• Abstract reasoning 
• Manipulate objects in our minds without seeing them
• Hypothesis testing
• Trial and error 
• Meta cognition
• Not every adult gets to this stage

Types of Intelligence

Crystallized

• Accumilated knowledge
• Increases with age

Fluid

• Ability to solve problems and quickly think abstractly 
• Peaks in 20's and then decreases over time

Moral Development

1. Pre-conventional Morality

• Morality based on rewards and punishment
• If you are rewarded them it's okay
• If your are punishes, the act must be wrong

2. Conventional Morality 

• Looked at morality based on how others see you
• If your peers, or society, thinks it is wrong, then so do you

3. Post-conventional Morality

• Based on self-defines ethical principles
• Your own personal set of ethics

Unit III Social Psychology

Social Psychology

-The study of how we think about, influence and relate to one another

Social Thinking

• Social Thinking: how we think of one another
• Attribution Theory: the idea that we give a casual explanation for someone's behavior, we credit that behavior either to the situation or the person's disposition
• Fundamental Attribution Error: the tendency to underestimate the impact of a situation and overestimate the impact of a situation and overestimate the impact of personal disposition
• Attitudes: a belief of feeling that predisposes one to respond in a particular way to something 
• Foot-in-the-door Phenomenon: the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request
• Door-in-face Phenomenon: the tendency for people who say no to a huge request, to comply with a smaller one
• Cognitive Dissonance Theory: we do not like when we have either conflicting attitudes or when will our attitudes do not match our actions

-When they clash, we will change our attitude to create balance

Social Influence

• Conformity: adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard
• Asch's Study
• Conditions that strengthen conformity:

1. One is made to feel incompetent
2. The group is at least three people
3. The group is unanimous
4. One admires the groups' status
5. One had made no prior commitment
6. The person is observed

• Reasons for Conforming:

-Normative Social Influence: influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disappointment 

-Informational Social Influence: influence resulting from one's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality

• Obedience: Milgram's experiment measures the willingness of study participants to obey an authority figure who instructed them to perform acts conflicting with their persona conscience
• Social Facilitation:

-Improved performance of tasks in the presence of others

-Occurs with simple or well learned tasks

-Not with tasks that are difficult or no yet mastered

• Social Loafing: the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling efforts toward a common goal than if they were individually accountable
• Deindividuation: the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity 
• Group Polarization: the concept that a group's attitude is one of extremes and rarely moderate
• Groupthink: the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides common sense 
• Self-Fulfilling Prophecies: occurs when one person's belief about others leads one to act in ways that induce the others to appear to confirm the beliefs

Social Relations

• Prejudice: an unjustifiable attitude towards a group of people, usually stereotyped beliefs (a generalized belief about a group of people)
• Social Inequalities:

-Ingroup: "us"- people with whom one shares a common identity

-Outgroup: "them" - those perceived as different than one's ingroup

-Ingroup bias: the tendency to favor one's own group

• Scapegoat Theory: the theory that prejudice provides an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame
• Aggression: any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy
• The Psychology of Aggression: 

Frustration-Aggressive Principle

• The blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal
• Creates anger which generates aggression 
• Goals can be: sports/work, relationships

• Conflict: a perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas

-Social trap or prisoner's dilemma

• The Just World Phenomenon: the belief that those who suffer deserve their fate
• Reciprocity Norm: expectation that people will help those that will help them
• Social Responsibility: the expectation that people help those that depend on them

• 5 Factors of Attraction:

1. Proximity: geographic nearness

• Mere Exposure Effect: repeated exposure to something breeds liking, mirror image concept

2. Reciprocal Liking: you are more likely to like someone who likes you

3. Similarity: opposites do not attract, similarity breeds concept

4. Physical Attractiveness

5. Love

• Passionate Love: an aroused state of intense positive absorption of another
• Compassionate Love: the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined
• Equity: both are fair
• Self-Disclosure: no secrets

• Altruism: unselfish regard for the welfare of others
• Bystander Effect: only help others when others are around
• Social Exchange Theory: the idea that our social behavior is an exchange process, which we maximize benefits and minimize costs
• Peacemaking: give people super ordinate (shared) goals that can only be achieved through cooperation, win win situation through mediation, GRIT (Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension Reduction)

Motivation and Emotion

• Motivation: a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior
• Instinct Theory: we are motivated by our inborn automated behavior, but instincts only explain why we do a small fraction of our behaviors
• Drive-Reduction Theory: the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need

-The need is usually to maintain homeostasis

-We are not only pushed by our needs but pulled by our incentives: a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

• Maslow said we are motivated by needs, and all needs are not created equal, we are driven to satisfy the lower level needs first.

Hunger

• Hunger: both physiological ad psychological 
• Biological Basis of Hunger

-Hunger does not come from our stomach

-Comes from the brain: the hypothalamus

• Hypothalamus

1. Lateral Hypothalamus 

-When stimulated it makes you hungry

-When lesioned (destroyed) you will never be hungry again

2. Ventromedial Hypothalamus

-When stimulated you feel full

-When lesioned you will never feel full again

• Two Theories

1. Leptin: is a protein produced by bloated fat cells
2. Set Point: 

• Hypothalamus acts like a thermostat
• We are meant to be in a certain weight rage
• When we fall below weight our body will increase hunger and decrease energy expenditure (Basic Metabolic Rate)

• Body Chemistry 

-Glucose: the hormone insulin converts glucose to fat, when glucose levels drop-hunger increases

• Hypothalamus and Hormones 

-The hypothalamus monitors a number of hormones that are related to hunger

• The Psychology of Hunger

-External: people whose eating is triggered more by the presence of food than internal factors

• Eating Disorder

-Bulimia Nervosa: characterized by binging (eating large amounts of food) and purging (getting rid of food)

-Anorexia Nervosa: starve themselves to below 85% of their normal body weight, see themselves as fat, majority are woman

Learn more about bulima nervosa and what it does to people:

Achievement Motivation

• Intrinsic Motivator: rewards we get internally, such as enjoyment or satisfaction
• Extrinsic Motivator: reward tat we get for accomplishments from outside ourselves
• Management Theory:

1. Theory X: managers believe that employees will work only if rewarded with benefits or threatened with punishment, think employees are extrinsically motivated, only interested in Maslow's lower needs
2. Theory Y: managers believe that employees are internally motivated to good work and policies should encourage this internal motive, interested in Maslow's higher needs

Theory of Emotions

1. James-Lange Theory: experience of emotion is awareness of physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli

• Emotion: we feel emotion because of biological changes caused by stress, the bod changes and our mind recognizes the feeling

2. Cannon-Bard Theory: emotion-arousing stimuli simultaneously trigger

• Physiological responses
• Subjective experience of emotion

3. Schachter's Two-Factor Theory: to experience emotion one must

• Be physically aroused 
• Cognitively label the arousal

Polygraph Lie Detectors

• Machinery commonly used in attempts to detect lies
• Measures several of the physiological responses accompanying emotion

1. Perspiration
2. Cardiovascular
3. Breathing changes

Experienced Emotion

• Catharsis

-Emotional release

-Catharsis hypothesis

-"Releasing" aggressive energy (through action or fantasy) relieve aggressive urges 

• Feel-good, Do-good Phenomenon: tendency to form judgments relative to "neutral" level

-Brightness of lights, volume of sound, level of income

-Defined by our prior experience

• Relative Deprivation: perception that one is worse of relative to those with whom one compares oneself